1) Testing PEP (The Playground Enhancement Project™)

Formal Playground observations indicate PEP reduces bullying behavior.

Observations were done of children at play on two school playgrounds over the course of two years (1995-1997). School A served as the experimental group and School B served as the control. See graph

School A and B were similar in size and socio-economic make-up and part of the same school district. Both had a basic playground program, with paid supervisors monitoring students for compliance with school rules and safety guidelines. Neither school were doing any other school-wide initiatives related to social skill development.

Year 1

Pre-test observations were conducted at both schools.

Experimental phase observations were made during a period of 6 months during year 1 when a PEP Can (game resources) was on playground A during every noon recess (5 days a week), and volunteer PEP game facilitators were available 2-3 days a week (note that year 1 obsevations were done on days when no volunteer PEP game helper was present).

Post-test Observations were conducted at both schools in the Spring, during a time in which game facilitators ceased coming to the playground A.

Results
Refer to the graph which depicts the % of students observed engaging in serious aggression* (bullying) at each school. Note the dramatic decrease in bullying at School A (down to 0 incidents) when PEP was introduced which was not seen at School B. Bullying behavior increased a bit in the Spring when volunteers no longer came to the playground.

Year 2

Followup observations were done at both school A and B, but it's difficult to draw full comparitive conclusions due to the lack of data from November through April at School B and a compromise in the research at School B. By Spingtime, playground supervisors and students learned of the nature of the research (not from researchers) and changes were being made at the school to support more positive playground interactions (ultimately desirable!).

Results
Looking only at Playground A, we again see aggression levels decrease dramatically with regular exposure to the PEP Can and to PEP volunteers. In year 2, volunteers remained on the playground throughout the Spring, and about half the observations were made when volunteers were on the playground. The incidents of aggression remained low in the Spring (and even in comparison to School B). When we looked closer at the data, we find that students were half as likely, on average, to engage in serious aggression (bullying) when PEP volunteers were present.

Surveys indicate PEP may have had the biggest impact on a small number students who were the most unhappy on the playground.

Pre-test surveying of students revealed a small number of students at both School A and School B with low scores for interpersonal skills and satisfaction on the playground. The average post-test score at School A, which had PEP for one year, improved twice as much as the score at School B. Due to the small sample, we cannot claim this as statistically significant improvement. But the possibility of PEP making the difference for a small group of "socially at-risk" students is supported by written comments from playground supervisors and volunteers who observed students, and by a slight average increase for the same student's self-reported propensity to play group games at School A, while the average propensity (score) remained steady at School B. More research needs to be done.

Students responded positively to PEP

Students learned and played PEP games. Formal observations of students on Playground A during year 2 showed that students mostly played PEP games on the days when volunteers were on the playground, but also on days when playground volunteers were not present. Observers noted in general that students at School A appeared to be playing in larger groups for longer periods of time, when compared to students at School B who tended to drift and shift from game to game more often.

PEP games were popular. PEP was an optional activity at School A. At the end of the first year of PEP, 226 students were surveyed. An average of 44% of the students in grades 1-5 reported joining in at least one PEP game 2-5 times per week. Over 38% of students' self-reported "favorite game" was a PEP game, and 55% of the student body reported moderate to frequent use of the PEP Can in order to engage in their favorite playground activity (this came as no surprise to the noon supervisors and playground volunteers).

Major Conclusion and Implications regarding PEP

Students on Playground A had significant exposure to PEP resources, without and without the presence of volunteer game facilitators, over the course of two school years. It was their own choice whether or not to participate. There being no other school initiative or variable to account for significant differences in the experimental and post-test observations of School A and School B, it is reasonable to assume that the presence of PEP on Playground A is responsible for the decrease in incidences of bullying behavior ('serious aggression') found only on Playground A.

The dramatic decrease in serious aggression at school A amounts, on average, to 5 fewer bullying incidents per observed day. This translates to 25 fewer bullying incidents per week, 95 per month, and 855 fewer during the whole school year. Couple that change with more students engaged in uninterrupted group play, and one might confidently say that PEP can help create a more harmonious playground climate that benefits children and schools.

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*We are sometimes using the term "bullying behavior" as a substitute for the term "serious aggression" (defined for purposes of this research as the intense quality of a student's tone or gesture as they push, grab, hit, kick, threaten or curse another in an apparent attempt to cause them hurt or humiliation). This sets bullying behavior apart from play fighting for fun on school playgrounds.

If you're interested in seeing a fuller description of the otherwise unpublished research desribed above, please contact us.

2) Related Research Findings

Cooperative Games: A Way to Modify Aggressive and Cooperative Behaviors in Young Children Bay-Hinitz, Peterson, and Quilitch. J Appl Behav Anal. 1994 Fall; 27(3): 435Ð446.
Researchers looked at the effect of both cooperative and competitive games on the behavior of 70 preschool children during game place and afterwards during free-play. They found that cooperative games lead to more cooperative behavior and less aggressive behavior both during play and afterwards. And that competitive games resulted in less cooperation and more aggression both during play and after play. The paper considers the implications of their findings, of the possible preventative use of cooperative games with pre-schoolers, to ensure children are learning the kind of pro-social behaviors and strategies that are missing among older students who exhibit aggressive, anti-social behaviors. Click here to see article in new window

Using Participatory Research to Develop a Playground-Based Prevention Program Leff, Costigan, Power and Thomas. Journal of School Psychology, vol.42 no.1 pg. 3-21 (Jan-Feb 2004).
Researchers established a school-wide program that focused on organized games on the playground for purposes of testing the programs's effect on rates of low level peer aggression among elementary students. They explain how aggression is associated with many "... social problem-solving, peer relationship, and academic difficulties." They found that providing organized games on the playground led to higher "...rates of cooperative play, lower rates of rough physical play, and higher levels of interactions...". They noted their findings replicated other research. When they looked for different effects of having the games verses having active adult supervision, they discovered that "the presence of organized games, even in the absence of adult support, was related to much higher rates of cooperative play than adult supervision in the absence of organized activities." They suggest therefore that the positive effect of active adult support is greater when these adults are involved in facilitating organized games/activities. Click here to see article in new window

Reducing Disruptive Behaviors of Elementary Physical Education Students with Sit and Watch White and Bailey, J Appl Behav Anal. 1990 Fall; 23(3): 353Ð359.
This research presents evidence that having non-compliant students sit out and watch the class for three minutes before returning to the group resulted in a 95% reduction in disruptive behavior. This time-out was facilitated by the use of a large home-made sand-filled hour glass that measured out 3 minutes. The authors point out this behavioral technology/management technique worked outside the classroom and even for "student with severe behavior problems". Click here to see article in new window

Community-based Prevention using Simple, Low-cost, Evidence-based Kernels and Behavior Vaccines. Embry, Dennis. Journal of Community Psychology, Vol.32, No.5, 575-591 (2004)
In this review, the author attempts to weed out "weak and inefficient prevention programs" that are funded by federal tax dollars but not working to reduce substance abuse and violence among our youth. The author also sought to identify exemplary programs that serve as "behavioral vaccines" because they have the potential of being integrated and sustained as a "cultural practice". Such behavioral vaccine programs would have to meet the following criteria: "1. low or no cost; 2. produce immediate benefit; 3. easy to explain, imitate, and generalize; 4. meet or solve other competing demands; 5. easily socially marketed; and 6. change key prevention principles/behavior- and/or antecedent-related risk and protective factors...." . Among the twelve examples he cites as "evidenced-based behavior kernels" that match the vaccine criteria is "Structured Organized recess". The author presents 4 citations of research as evidence that "Structured recess games that emphasize turn taking, helpfulness, rule following, and emotion control dramatically improve cooperative behavior, decrease bullying & aggression, improve social norms, better character, improve academic learning during the day, and reduces Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and other disturbances. Reduces obesity or BMI [Body Mass Index]." Click here to see article in new window

Behavioral school psychology goes outdoors: the effect of organized games on playground aggression. Murphy, Hutchison, and Bailey. J Appl Behav Anal. 1983 Spring; 16(1): 29Ð35.
This research describes the experimental use organized games to deal with a group of 344 students in grades K-2 on the playground before school started. Although the study seemed to suffer from some inconsistency in observation methods for 20 minute periods, it was reported that having adults facilitate games, group jump-roping and foot races (and the infrequent use of time-out for non-compliant students) resulted in the reduction of aggressive incidents. Incidents dropped from an average of 212 to 91 the first time they introduced the facilitated activities, and from 191 to 97 the second time. Researchers noted that "the greatest improvement in the children's behavior resulted when organized games were provided as an alternative to the activities in which they normally engaged when left to their own devices." They also point out that the high levels of aggressive incidents at the start were not perpetrated just by a handful of trouble-makers, but by "virtually every child . . . when given nothing better to do". Click here to see article in new window

We are pleased with the PEP program and can recommend it to other schools. Harmony Works has done an exemplary job packaging the program and making it user-friendly. One of our teachers has been able to use the materials to train our staff and volunteers, and children have received PEP training during P.E. We started PEP only two months ago, but PEP's basic rules of fair play are now the expected protocol on the playground, which has alleviated disputes among students. The games are of interest and appropriate maturation levels for elementary age children. We will soon be recruiting and training more volunteer game leaders from school parents and the local high school child development class.
- Principal Angela Brickey of Darby Elementary, Darby, Montana

It is the PEP program that truly made a big difference with my third grader. As a boy who knowingly struggles with making new friends, he latched onto PEP the first week and it was his salvation during lunch recess.
- Parent of boy who came late in school year, Missoula, MT

Serving on the [Playground Enhancement Pilot Project Steering] committee gave an opportunity to spend time on the playground, not as a duty [supervisor], but as a participant. Joining in games and initiating activities game me a unique look at [students] and their social behaviors. Throughout my experience, I noticed that children were continually improving their communication skills. I believe the Playground Enhancement Pilot Project to be worthwhile. The program is effective, in that many students who were once isolated on the playground, now participate in games. And some have actually become good team members and strong leaders. Over the past two years, I have been concerned about a student who was not at all comfortable on the playground. In fact, his playground experience was quite miserable. The student was unable to initiate games, lacked the skills needed to communicate with his peers, and wandered the playground without companionship. This year [with PEP], that very student got involved in the playground games. There is never a winner or a loser in the games offered during recess and he was able to fit in without feeling pressure to succeed. He was given an opportunity to participate and enjoy himself. His social skills are improving and he is eager to be an equal participant within a group.
- 5/13/96 Teacher (4th, K) who volunteered weekly at noon recess at School A* in Missoula, MT

PEP gives the children something to do besides walking around in circles or causing troubles.
- Playground Supervisor - School A* in Missoula, MT

I am writing this letter in support of the Playground Enhancement Pilot Project . . . . All students were given the opportunity to interact with their peers in cooperative games. I observed students who normally did not engage in group games, become involved and readily volunteer to participate. Besides learning to play the games, students also learned social, physical and problem-solving strategies that will carry into their life outside of school. In summary, students were provided a non-threatening environment where they could feel comfortable playing new games with unfamiliar students.
- 5/21/96 School Principal - School A* in Missoula MT

...From what I have observed, many children have benefitted from the [PEP] project. For reasons I'm unaware, many of the non-competitive games my generation enjoyed in our youth are not being handed down to the children playing on our playground. Competitive games abound where for every 'winner' there is at least one 'loser'. I believe it is vital to the welfare of the child that he or she be allowed to play, and in fact, be encouraged to play cooperative games where no one 'loses'. Those games also encourage tolerance, fair play, action and laughter.... I am very much interested in seeing the program continue (and spread to other playgrounds).
- 5/16/96 Parent of two male students (grades 3, 5) who served on the review committee of the PEP pilot project at School A* in Missoula, MT.

I have been the Program Director for the summer day camp for three years and have found the Mini PEP Kit to be our most practical and useful piece of equipment. We used it at our center and brought it along on field trips. It has allowed staff and children to work and play in collaboration with a minimal amount of disruptions, due to the nature of the games provided, and the structure in which they are formatted. I would recommend the Mini PEP Kit and 'The Playground Enhancement Project' for anyone, or organization who works with children.
- Stuart Armstrong, Camp Fire Boys & Girls in Missoula, MT

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* School A served as a pilot project and experimental model for testing PEP. See "Testing PEP" on this page for details.

Please email us so that we can add your comments here.

Letters:

10/1/04
Dear Ms. Jacobs,
Thank you for your work on PEP. I found your video in my box and it has been perfect in my Playground Games Unit for all the kids K-5. They have enjoyed the games .... I don't know how I got it, but it has been a blessing. Thank you.
-Vicki Staso, Russell PE